CONFERENCE SCHEDULE
24 & 26 September: 10am-4pm
SESSIONS IV & V (10:00am-12:00pm)
Friday 26th September
David Best, Alessandro Tosi,
(Papers in absentia see below)
Creating History Panel:
Ben Geytenbeek & Tim Edwards
ZOOM LINK:
https://us06web.zoom.us/j/89021362914?pwd=NZ9lJTKZ9pfyyyVdAdmaPMad7aUm3M.1
and
SESSION VI (1:00pm-3:00pm)
Friday 26th September
Nigel a Brassard, Ian Harris,
Rob Lake & Luca Bottazzi
ZOOM LINK:
https://us06web.zoom.us/j/84534490688?pwd=4kygEZvXMhJXoFtcbMiAlaXaF1IEIk.1
Please turn your Audio to mute when joining the meeting. If you want to ask a question for the speakers there will be time at the end of the session online or email Freddy:
[email protected]
Thank you and enjoy the conference!
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RSVP & questions:
Contact Frederika Adam
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1.PAPER IN ABSENTIA by Cees de Bondt
Projected title of the forthcoming book: Caravaggio’s Infamous Tennis Match: The Mystery around a Caravaggist Painting. Tekst: Cees de Bondt
Chapter One
The Flemish painter Karel van Mander already noted in 1604 that his colleague Caravaggio had built up a reputation for brawling on the tennis court. The match on the evening of Sunday, 28 May 1606, between Caravaggio and his rival Ranuccio Tomassoni takes centre stage here, raising the question of whether their violent confrontation inspired the mythological painting The Death of Hyacinth. This chapter weaves together a tapestry of compelling themes that vie for prominence in the envisioned book. How could a tennis match spiral into deadly violence? What was the nature of the relationship between these two volatile men? At the heart of the book lies the painting referenced in its title: two mythological figures, intimately entwined, each holding a racket. The narrative explores Caravaggio's life and work, his obsession with tennis, and the cultural significance of the sport in his time. These elements are examined from multiple perspectives that may have influenced the creation of the painting. Equally captivating is the way a select group of Italian Baroque poets sought to reinterpret the original myth in a contemporary light. For the researcher, this is where the emotional core of the drama resides. It invites deeper investigation, urging one to uncover hidden connections. Poetic fragments seem to echo the tension of that fateful evening on the tennis court. The rivalry between Caravaggio and Tomassoni had been simmering for years. The spider at the centre of this web of conflict appears to be one of Caravaggio's favourite models.
Two
Type "Caravaggio" and "tennis" into any search engine, and you'll be met with tens of thousands of results. On that Sunday evening, two tennis teams faced off, with Caravaggio and Ranuccio Tomassoni as long-standing adversaries. Their clashes were frequent, and an eruption of violence seemed inevitable. What exactly transpired on 28 May remains shrouded in mystery, as rumours quickly spread. The painter's notorious reputation only fuelled speculation. Caravaggio's journey was anything but smooth, rising from obscurity to fame, only to endure a harrowing four-year flight after the fatal incident. Contemporary reports suggest the match took place on a pallacorda (tennis court) near the Medici ambassador's palace in Rome, Palazzo Firenze, on a street now aptly named Via di Pallacorda.
Delving into serious literature on Caravaggio reveals characters that resonate deeply with readers. One such figure is Filli, a young woman who struggled to survive in a world of poverty and marginalisation. She had feelings for Ranuccio, and possibly later for Caravaggio. To make ends meet, Filli sold her body, navigating a harsh existence with resilience and grace. Her story adds a poignant human dimension to the drama.
Three
An intriguing archival document, previously overlooked in Caravaggio studies, sheds new light on the pallacorda where Caravaggio killed his rival Ranuccio. Contrary to popular belief, the fatal match did not occur on a street or open field, but within the court of the Medici's Palazzo Firenze in Rome. Built in 1569–1570 for the 19-year-old Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, this structure played a central role in the unfolding drama.
The document also reveals the first mention of the Claudio Neri family, from about 1604 owners of a tennis court on Via di Pallacorda. In this year the original Medici court was used as a dowry when one of Claudio's four daughters married a well-to-do nobleman. This financial arrangement transformed the Pallacorda into a family enterprise. That same year, the court was leased to two professional tennis players. Yet operating a profitable tennis court proved far from easy, as the family would soon discover.
Four
The mythological painting The Death of Hyacinth, which anchors the research presented here, was created between 1620 and 1623. It emerged from the vibrant cultural and artistic milieu of Rome, where lectures and discussions brought the Apollo and Hyacinth tennis theme to life. Gradually, clues surface suggesting that the murder on the tennis court continued to reverberate in the minds of Caravaggio's contemporaries long after 1606. This enduring fascination stemmed from the artist's controversial status. Two Roman academies—the Accademia degli Umoristi and the San Luca academy—played pivotal roles in keeping the tennis theme and Caravaggio's lifestyle at the forefront of cultural discourse.
Within the Umoristi academy, the dialogue between patron and artist was essential. Religious members may have been inclined to support the letterati, musicians, and artists who attended the meetings. Meanwhile, the San Luca academy of artists became a hotbed of debate. The more we uncover about its internal discussions, the more compelling the narrative becomes. Caravaggio's 1606 murder and subsequent banishment from Rome sparked intense exchanges between his supporters and detractors, echoing through the halls and even reaching the academy's president, the Principe. He happened to be the ultimate mentor of the painter.
Five
The painting The Death of Hyacinth is not merely a visual representation of myth, it is a coded reflection of Caravaggio’s inner world and the violent rupture that defined his life. The figures of Apollo and Hyacinth, entwined in embrace, evoke not only the sensuality of the original myth but also the tension and intimacy of the fatal tennis match. It needs tob e explored how the painting’s composition, symbolism, and mythological references serve as a mirror to Caravaggio’s psychological landscape. Was it an accident, a duel, or a murder? The painting refuses to answer, instead inviting viewers into a space of emotional and interpretive complexity.
Six
We now turn to the legacy of Caravaggio’s tennis match and its artistic echoes. Long after the painter’s death, the motif of tennis as a metaphor for conflict, desire, and fate continued to surface in poetry, painting, and performance. The pallacorda became a symbol of contested space, where bodies clashed, reputations were forged, and myths were born. The afterlife of the event is put in perpsective through cultural memory. It examines how later artists and writers reimagined the match, transforming it into allegory and spectacle. The murder became myth, and the myth became a lens through which to view the tensions of Baroque Rome: between violence and chaos, passion and restraint. What follows echoes a racket fiercely striking a ball, of a body falling, of a myth retold.
Seven
The abundance of candidates for the production of La Mort d’Hyacinthe reflects the influx of artists into Rome during the early 17th century. The Caravaggio and Northern European Painting exhibition of 2018–2019 in a museum in Utrecht highlighted the specific contexts in which northern painters responded to the innovative art of the Italian master Caravaggio. One of the lectures was given by an art historian on the work of the Liège painter Gérard Douffet, whom he identified as the painter of The Death of Hyacinth. Gerard Douffet, born in Liège in 1594, studied under Peter Paul Rubens in Antwerp between 1612 and 1614 before seeking artistic inspiration in Italy, where he stayed from 1614 to 1623/1624. According to his biographer, Douffet's guide in Rome accompanied him to a place where "the most renowned artists gathered to perfect their art", specifically the work of Caravaggio. This guide was most likely Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, patron of the San Luca academy and a pivotal figure in Caravaggio’s career. Besides the cardinal served as the cultural agent of the Medici family in Rome. It was the cardinal who did his utmost to create peace between the pro and anti Caravaggio members. For decades on end! Douffet’s biographer also notes that the greatest advantage the young painter gained from his Roman experience was a cultivated taste for the Belles Lettres and the study of poetry and history. This reference evokes the Umoristi academy, where these literary disciplines were held in high regard, alongside the San Luca academy. Had Douffet become aware of The Death of Hyacinth tennis discussions during Umoristi meetings? And as to the San Luca, did Douffet personally experience the heightened emotions within this artistic platform between 1617 and 1620? The young painter would have sided with the Caravaggio faction, as might be expected based on his close connections with Caravaggio, the Genius of Rome.
Eight
In a secluded Italian palace, a fresco has been found that has escaped the attention of the select group of literary critics studying the Death of Hyacinth tennis context. The fresco depicts a beautifully stylised tennis court from the Baroque period. The action appears frozen: Apollo leans forward anxiously to see how badly his opponent has been injured, still clutching the racket with which he delivered the fatal blow. The ominous spider's web in the middle of the net adds a mysterious, symbolic dimension to the scene. This fresco draws inspiration from Giambattista Marino’s magnum opus, his l’Adone. This celebrated poet of the Italian Baroque and proves to be one of the first to dedicate himself to the Apollo and Hyacinth tennis theme in the Baroque. Marino can be described as a serious instigator of the poetically themed Death of Hyacinth motif during the literary activities of the Umoristi academy.
Fragments of his yet-to-be-published L’Adone circulated in cultural circles. Its homoerotic undertones sparked ecclesiastical debate, leading to discussions among members of the academy. Both pro-Marino and anti-Marino factions composed their own versions of the theme. Marino dedicated over 30 ottavi (8-line rhymes) to Apollo’s tennis match with Hyacinthus in his L’Adone. The poet concludes his poem with a flattering portrait of Hyacinthus painted by Apollo, the God of the Arts, so that the name of his beloved would live on. This is a reference to the literary origin of transformations in the Apollo and Hyacinthus theme, Ovid's Metamorphoses. The Roman poet, however, used a discus, not a ball, thrown by Apollo to kill Hyacinth, highlighting the evolution of myth through artistic reinterpretation.
Nine
Here we introduce a poet who takes Marino’s concept even further. His poem was published in 1618 and is another poetic gem. Compared to Marino's text, Francesco Bracciolini's poem Lo Scherno degli Dei, seems to contain more recognizable contemporary allusions. Caravaggio himself at first seems to remain in the shadows, but his contours gradually become sharper. Lo Scherno degli Dei possesses a surprisingly fresh, sensual, and unashamedly realistic quality. It falls in the category eroicomico (mock-heroïc) en burlesco mitologico, a genre of poetry that played with hidden references to contemporary reality. In burlesco mitologico works, it was not only the behaviour of mythological figures that the poet aimed to satirize, but also figures from Bracciolini's own personal experience that had captured the audience's attention. In the poetic travesties that Bracciolini included in his "Apollo and Hyacinth" tennis match, he was playing with the perspective of Caravaggio's infamous tennis match. It is Bracciolini's description in Lo Scherno degli Dei of two paintings with The Death of Hyacinth subject that immediately stands out. In his introduction to the tennis match (ottavi 25-27) between Apollo and Hyacinth, Francesco Bracciolini expresses the need for a painting that depicts the drama. This was to capture Hyacinth's beauty for eternity. The painting was to be executed by la maestra Natura (Apollo) himself. It was this god, after all, who possessed the art of transformation.
Ten
Fillide Melandroni gradually emerges as a pivotal figure in the search for a biographical subtext behind The Death of Hyacinth painting. The ultimate trigger for the fatal confrontation on 28 May 1606 appears to be Fillide’s increasing subjugation to her pimp, Ranuccio Tomassoni, an arrangement that deeply frustrated Caravaggio. Several overlooked aspects of Fillide’s life are addressed in a poem clearly inspired by her. Francesco Bracciolini, once again the author, included it in his book Lo Scherno degli Dei. In the text of Fillide civettina (Coquettish Fillide), a vivid portrait of a remarkable young woman intent on winning hearts begins to take shape. The timing of the poem, 1618, the year of Fillide Melandroni’s death, suggests that Bracciolini is indeed alluding to her. She had been bedridden for some time, and her condition was visibly deteriorating. The poem can be interpreted as an attempt to express sympathy and compassion for Fillide’s natural flirtatiousness. Bracciolini through his Fillide civettina emphasizes its emotional resonance and historical timing. Fillide was perceived as the catalyst between the two rivals and likely served as the emotional centre of the dramatic tennis duel.
Eleven
The nobleman Giulio Strozzi proves to have been Fillide’s lover from roughly 1604 to 1618, the last five years proving to be particularly troublesome for him. Giulio returned to his birthplace Venice around 1619. It seems highly likely that the death of Fillide the previous year contributed to this, especially given the frustration he must have experienced from having hardly been able to maintain contact with her. Strozzi had so many questions for her, how could it be that their relationship became increasingly strained? The emotions associated with this increasingly defined his state of mind. These are tangibly expressed in one of his libretti, ‘My Fillide who caused me sorrow” (Filli mia che mi ferì), a desperate cry from the heart with criticism of Fillide. Nevertheless, she is portrayed in the text by her beloved as a star. Giulio Strozzi is closely followed to find out if there is anything in his poetic work in Venice that reveals a vision of Fillide playing in his thoughts. The latter should come as no surprise based on the emotional experiences related to processing heartbreak for this poet. This is also in the context of Caravaggio's portrait of Fillide, which Strozzi prominently displayed in his palace in Venice. Giulio Strozzi built up an impressive corpus of poems in Venice. In these the male lover laments a mistress who is on the run, a prime example of unrequited love. It seems to be a shorter version of Bracciolini's Fillide civettina, supplemented with new vague characters. What is the point of fleeing if you are not freed from the chains of your heart, according to the text. Fillide Melandroni was exiled, and it was a potential marriage contract that caused the separation between the two lovers. Strozzi’s father objected to his son having an affair with a prostitute. It was the heartbreak and the societal pressures that shaped their separation.
Twelve
Fillide Melandroni continues to stir emotions in the course of this research. Alongside Giulio Strozzi, it is his close friend Marcello Giovanetti who is presented here as a co-inspirer of the literary musings that recall the fatal tennis match of 1606. Giovanetti’s poetic strategy incorporates all literary elements to leave the reader in confusion, encouraging reflection on what has just been consumed. The following poem by Giovanetti indeed seems inspired by such a sad affair. Two women come to the forefront, and according to Giovanetti, they share something in common. One seems to allude to Fillide Melandroni. In his La Donna presente a spettacolo di Giustizia, the spectacle of the execution of the death sentence in 1599 of Beatrice Cenci is described, without her name being mentioned. Beatrice had her father Francesco Cenci killed, a man with a tyrannical spirit who committed extreme violence against his close family members. The court acted immediately, and Beatrice was to be executed publicly. Just like a large crowd of Romans, Caravaggio, and probably Fillide Melandroni, managed to secure a spot for the execution, as described by Caravaggio biographers. However, they left the following poem untouched. Giovanetti's second poem with a contemporary touch is titled Bella Dama vede l'amante disfidato à Duello. Again, Fillide Melandroni seems to play a role here, in this case as a witness to a duel. However, Giovanetti makes no mention of a tennis match as the origin of the duel, only that it is a love duel that apparently ignited the emotions. Two rivals stand threateningly opposite each other, comparable to knights in armour, culminating in: “But you, fair lady, are the referee of this match, its queen, with the authority to decide. Who will win your heart?” The text possesses evident characteristics of a clever allusion to the fatal tennis match that Caravaggio played against Ranuccio Tomassoni, Fillide Melandroni's pimp and protector.
Thirteen
A new poetic voice enters the scene: Count Carlo Gabrielli di Gubbio, author of Insalata mescolanza (1621). A friend of Giulio Strozzi, Gabrielli spent time with him in a Roman palace before Fillide Melandroni’s death in 1618. Their conversations likely touched on Caravaggio’s fateful tennis match and Fillide’s emotional role in the drama. Gabrielli’s poems focus on Fillide as a captivating figure, gazing from her window at passing men, choosing one with a subtle nod. The other, rejected, becomes agitated. In four poems examined here, Gabrielli consistently presents two lovers (cavalieri) vying for the attention of a Dama. The setting shifts from street to dance floor, but the emotional tension remains. Gabrielli’s depiction of Fillide’s inn, where she ran a house of ill repute, adds biographical texture. His verses suggest a rivalry between two suitors, one of whom may be Ranuccio. Gabrielli’s tone implies disapproval of this figure, while favouring the other. The poet’s allegiances seem shaped by his sources, casting Fillide as both muse and mirror of the conflict.
Fourteen
Gabrielli’s poetic engagement with the Caravaggio-Ranuccio rivalry continues in the final section of Insalata mescolanza. One poem, introduced here, contains elements that suggest a link to the creation of The Death of Hyacinth. Gabrielli also composed a celebratory poem for the 1621 marriage of Federigo Ubaldo della Rovere and Claudia de’ Medici, daughter of Grand Duke Ferdinando I. This Medici connection raises expectations. In poem no. 22, two weary duelists face off on a tennis court. Gabrielli’s tone is dismissive, portraying them as cowardly. The match is framed as symbolic, tied to the marriage. In poem no. 23, Apollo returns as the God of Painting, transforming Hyacinth into a flower. Gabrielli’s allegory seems to cast Federigo Ubaldo as Hyacinth, foreshadowing his death two years later, aged 18. The young duke’s immaturity as a husband is subtly critiqued. The poetic sequence blends myth, biography, and prophecy, suggesting that the tennis motif served as a vehicle for deeper cultural commentary. In Gabrielli’s hands, tennis becomes a stage for deeper truths about love, rivalry, and legacy.
Fifteen
The famous Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens spent a considerable period (1601–1608) in Italy, particularly in Rome. What might this master of Gérard Douffet have imparted in Antwerp before his pupil ventured into his Roman adventure in 1614? For Rubens began eight years of intensive training on the Italian penisula, which introduced him to the masters of the Renaissance. Through his brother Philip Rubens in Rome, Peter Paul made contact with two members of the powerful Colonna family, Cardinal Ascanio and his sister Costanza Colonna. Costanza, the Marchioness of the village of Caravaggio, would support the artist Caravaggio throughout his life with both advice and action, even during his exile. Rubens may also have met Caravaggio, specifically in Rome's Chiesa Nuova. Rubens created three altarpieces here between 1606 and 1608. This period is particularly fascinating, as Rubens must have learned about Caravaggio's murder and his exile from the city during his stay in Rome. Additionally, around 1603, Caravaggio painted his widely acclaimed Entombment of Christ for another altar in the Chiesa Nuova. What had Rubens told his pupil Douffet later when the latter prepared his journey to Rome in 1614? Peter Paul Rubens was not just as a master painter, but as a cultural conduit, linking Antwerp to Rome, and Douffet to Caravaggio. His time in Italy is rendered with emotional and intellectual weight, suggesting that Rubens absorbed not only artistic technique but also the dramatic tensions of Baroque Rome. The connection to Costanza Colonna is emphasized as a stabilizing force in Caravaggio’s life, while Rubens’ presence in Chiesa Nuova during the years of Caravaggio’s exile adds a layer of historical intrigue. Rubens’ mentorship of Douffet can be seen as a transmission of both style and story, perhaps even of whispered rumours surrounding the fatal tennis match. Douffet must have been intrigued by them when he set out to travel to Rome to be inspired by Caravaggio’s unique way of painting.
Sixteen
The following description should be associated with the fact that it was on the original Medici tennis court that Caravaggio killed his opponent. The game of tennis proves to be a sporty pastime with which the Medici family wanted to associate themselves, often staged within a historical context. Respective or irrespective of the fatal 1606 match. This intimate bond gave the theme more prominence and appeared to be more serious. During the Baroque period, the Medici family commissioned tennis-related works to place their strong bond with the game into perspective. The tennis theme of Apollo and Hyacinth was also prominently featured. A housemate of the painter Douffet in Rome also tackled the subject, and it ended up in the collection of Claudia de' Medici. The Medici also positioned themselves as patrons of Lorenzo Lippi, the painter of the mysterious Giocatore di palla a corda che ha ucciso un compagno (now lost). A painting of a tennis player who killed a fellow player. It is fascinating to associate such a work again with The Medici, with Claudia emerging once more as the patron.
In this chapter tennis is portrayed not just as a pastime, but as a cultural metaphor, used by the Medici to stage power, refinement, and mythic association. The inclusion of Lorenzo Lippi’s lost painting Giocatore di palla a corda che ha ucciso un compagno is framed as a haunting echo of Caravaggio’s match, suggesting that the theme of tennis-as-tragedy continued to ripple through artistic circles. Claudia de’ Medici’s role as patron is emphasized to show how a Medici princess, too, shaped the legacy of this mythic narrative.
Seventeen
The Medici family has notably made their presence felt as key players in the artistic and literary works discussed here, without any specific search for their name. It surfaced almost consistently whenever the artistic biographies of painters and poets mentioned were unravelled. The first was Cardinal Ferdinando de’ Medici, whose involvement included commissioning a tennis court at his residence in Rome, Palazzo Firenze, in 1570. This building passed into the hands of the Neri family in 1604, or even before. To highlight the role of ball games in Florence more sharply, a Florentine academy of great historical significance is now spotlighted: the Accademia della Crusca. Founded in 1583, it is the oldest language academy in the world. One of the primary missions of the society was to write the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, a comprehensive Italian dictionary. Its first edition was published in 1612. The inspiration for the Crusca academy from all the technical and allegorical aspects of the tennis ball is expressed in 21 paragraphs dedicated to ball games in the Dizionario della lingua italiana of the Accademia della Crusca. In the new edition of the text, it is also added that the theme of balls cannot be viewed separately from the balls in the family crest of the Medici, a poetic metaphor for power, ball-related sports, and legacy.
Eighteen
It is after a process of nearly two decades of research (with occasional breaks to establish a suitable distance from the subject) that a convincing foundation of the original theory can be presented regarding the mystery surrounding the depiction of The Death of Hyacinth. A recent article by art historian John Gash provides a tempting impetus, as well as apparent support for this. His study can be interpreted as a striking example of a maturation process in which sources were tapped that seem to bolster the succession of hypotheses about the painter in question and the reason for its production. It is the Caravaggist painter Gérard Douffet from Liège who once again comes forward. John Gash gathers the paintings that can be attributed to Douffet during his stay in Italy from 1614 to 1624, including his Death of Hyacinth. Douffet's formally established oeuvre is limited to just 20 paintings, but he clearly produced more, some of which are also in Italy. It is the sharp eye of the specialist that is able to bring to the surface those details in Douffet's compositions that make the painter distinctive. Gash highlights Douffet’s The Death of Hyacinth in this overview: he qualifies it as obviously Caravaggesque; it indeed evokes Caravaggio himself in various ways. This is based on the close-up treatment and the homoerotic undertone of the male nudes, as Apollo lovingly cradles the dying friend he has accidentally mortally wounded. Gash also comments on a possible commissioner for Douffet’s mythological painting. Various Roman patrons owned tennis courts and might have preferred such a subject choice, possibly also as a reference to Caravaggio's notorious fight, according to Gash's estimation.
John Gash’s recent article is treated as a scholarly revelation here, offering validation and momentum. The homoerotic undertone and close-up intimacy in Douffet’s painting as hallmarks of Caravaggio’s influence are emphasised. The idea that Roman patrons with tennis courts may have commissioned such a work adds intrigue and thematic closure. The chapter now ends with a sense of quiet revelation: the myth reborn through brushstroke, the murder refracted through allegory, and the artist’s legacy sealed in shadow and light.
Nineteen
The final chapter returns to the painting The Death of Hyacinth as a prism through which the entire narrative becomes visible. The tennis match between Caravaggio and Ranuccio Tomassoni, once a violent rupture, has become a cultural echo, resonating through poetry, painting, and patronage. This final chapter proposes that the painting’s enduring power lies in its ambiguity. It refuses to resolve the tension between love and violence, sport and ritual, myth and biography. Instead, it invites viewers to dwell in the space between, where meaning is not fixed, but fluid. The spider’s web, the rackets, the gaze of Apollo: each element becomes a symbol, layered with historical and emotional resonance. The painting is not an answer, but a question, posed across centuries.
In closing, the book suggests that The Death of Hyacinth is not just a depiction of a myth, but a mirror of Caravaggio’s world and ours. If there is one literary work that lends itself perfectly as a source of inspiration for artists, it is Ovid's Metamorphoses. It provided an excellent motivation for painters to bring figurative art and poetry together. The mutual dynamics developed from painting as 'silent poetry' and from poetry as 'speaking image'. A tempting starting point within the context of Caravaggio's more than a decade-long stay in Rome is, in this final stage, to highlight one of Caravaggio's plausible tennis opponents, Francesco Maria del Monte. If we refer back to the drama on which this entire book is based, the out-of-control tennis match between Caravaggio and Ranuccio Tomassoni, then the likely role played by the cardinal just after the fateful event is of considerable significance. It is certainly possible that during Caravaggio's stay at Cardinal del Monte’s residence Palazzo Madama (1595-1600, which now serves as the Senate), both host and guest found themselves on the tennis court, either at the Palazzo Firenze court or at the one located at the Villa Medici. Cardinal del Monte’s biographer, Zygmunt Wazbinski, provides an intriguing depiction of the special place that Palazzo Madama held among a select group of artists and their patrons. Wazbinski argues that artists from outside Rome and Italy exhibited their works in Palazzo Madama to gain recognition within the Roman artistic milieu. Palazzo Madama thus evolved into the stage for Caravaggio's unique style, according to Wazbinski. A place also had to be made for a portrait of his most extreme act, as can be established. Visitors immediately recognised the significance of The Death of Hyacinth painting upon viewing it. Through Ovid's theme of transformation, Caravaggio's death is undone, as he attains eternal life through his art (and lives on as a hyacinth). A notable parallel exists between Caravaggio's The Entombment (in Rome’s Chiesa Nuova) and The Death of Hyacinth in a realistic context: this is in the sense that painting does not depict the death of Ranuccio Tomassoni but that of Caravaggio in 1610. This interpretation would undoubtedly have strongly appealed to Cardinal del Monte, the ultimate father figure for the painter. The Death of Hyacinth as a celebration of art, therefore, also supported by Douffet's use of light and dark in his composition, following in the footsteps of his shining example Caravaggio. The Death of Hyacinth is not just presented here as a painting, but as a carrier of memory, myth, and unresolved tension.
Projected title of the forthcoming book: Caravaggio’s Infamous Tennis Match: The Mystery around a Caravaggist Painting. Tekst: Cees de Bondt
Chapter One
The Flemish painter Karel van Mander already noted in 1604 that his colleague Caravaggio had built up a reputation for brawling on the tennis court. The match on the evening of Sunday, 28 May 1606, between Caravaggio and his rival Ranuccio Tomassoni takes centre stage here, raising the question of whether their violent confrontation inspired the mythological painting The Death of Hyacinth. This chapter weaves together a tapestry of compelling themes that vie for prominence in the envisioned book. How could a tennis match spiral into deadly violence? What was the nature of the relationship between these two volatile men? At the heart of the book lies the painting referenced in its title: two mythological figures, intimately entwined, each holding a racket. The narrative explores Caravaggio's life and work, his obsession with tennis, and the cultural significance of the sport in his time. These elements are examined from multiple perspectives that may have influenced the creation of the painting. Equally captivating is the way a select group of Italian Baroque poets sought to reinterpret the original myth in a contemporary light. For the researcher, this is where the emotional core of the drama resides. It invites deeper investigation, urging one to uncover hidden connections. Poetic fragments seem to echo the tension of that fateful evening on the tennis court. The rivalry between Caravaggio and Tomassoni had been simmering for years. The spider at the centre of this web of conflict appears to be one of Caravaggio's favourite models.
Two
Type "Caravaggio" and "tennis" into any search engine, and you'll be met with tens of thousands of results. On that Sunday evening, two tennis teams faced off, with Caravaggio and Ranuccio Tomassoni as long-standing adversaries. Their clashes were frequent, and an eruption of violence seemed inevitable. What exactly transpired on 28 May remains shrouded in mystery, as rumours quickly spread. The painter's notorious reputation only fuelled speculation. Caravaggio's journey was anything but smooth, rising from obscurity to fame, only to endure a harrowing four-year flight after the fatal incident. Contemporary reports suggest the match took place on a pallacorda (tennis court) near the Medici ambassador's palace in Rome, Palazzo Firenze, on a street now aptly named Via di Pallacorda.
Delving into serious literature on Caravaggio reveals characters that resonate deeply with readers. One such figure is Filli, a young woman who struggled to survive in a world of poverty and marginalisation. She had feelings for Ranuccio, and possibly later for Caravaggio. To make ends meet, Filli sold her body, navigating a harsh existence with resilience and grace. Her story adds a poignant human dimension to the drama.
Three
An intriguing archival document, previously overlooked in Caravaggio studies, sheds new light on the pallacorda where Caravaggio killed his rival Ranuccio. Contrary to popular belief, the fatal match did not occur on a street or open field, but within the court of the Medici's Palazzo Firenze in Rome. Built in 1569–1570 for the 19-year-old Cardinal Ferdinando de' Medici, this structure played a central role in the unfolding drama.
The document also reveals the first mention of the Claudio Neri family, from about 1604 owners of a tennis court on Via di Pallacorda. In this year the original Medici court was used as a dowry when one of Claudio's four daughters married a well-to-do nobleman. This financial arrangement transformed the Pallacorda into a family enterprise. That same year, the court was leased to two professional tennis players. Yet operating a profitable tennis court proved far from easy, as the family would soon discover.
Four
The mythological painting The Death of Hyacinth, which anchors the research presented here, was created between 1620 and 1623. It emerged from the vibrant cultural and artistic milieu of Rome, where lectures and discussions brought the Apollo and Hyacinth tennis theme to life. Gradually, clues surface suggesting that the murder on the tennis court continued to reverberate in the minds of Caravaggio's contemporaries long after 1606. This enduring fascination stemmed from the artist's controversial status. Two Roman academies—the Accademia degli Umoristi and the San Luca academy—played pivotal roles in keeping the tennis theme and Caravaggio's lifestyle at the forefront of cultural discourse.
Within the Umoristi academy, the dialogue between patron and artist was essential. Religious members may have been inclined to support the letterati, musicians, and artists who attended the meetings. Meanwhile, the San Luca academy of artists became a hotbed of debate. The more we uncover about its internal discussions, the more compelling the narrative becomes. Caravaggio's 1606 murder and subsequent banishment from Rome sparked intense exchanges between his supporters and detractors, echoing through the halls and even reaching the academy's president, the Principe. He happened to be the ultimate mentor of the painter.
Five
The painting The Death of Hyacinth is not merely a visual representation of myth, it is a coded reflection of Caravaggio’s inner world and the violent rupture that defined his life. The figures of Apollo and Hyacinth, entwined in embrace, evoke not only the sensuality of the original myth but also the tension and intimacy of the fatal tennis match. It needs tob e explored how the painting’s composition, symbolism, and mythological references serve as a mirror to Caravaggio’s psychological landscape. Was it an accident, a duel, or a murder? The painting refuses to answer, instead inviting viewers into a space of emotional and interpretive complexity.
Six
We now turn to the legacy of Caravaggio’s tennis match and its artistic echoes. Long after the painter’s death, the motif of tennis as a metaphor for conflict, desire, and fate continued to surface in poetry, painting, and performance. The pallacorda became a symbol of contested space, where bodies clashed, reputations were forged, and myths were born. The afterlife of the event is put in perpsective through cultural memory. It examines how later artists and writers reimagined the match, transforming it into allegory and spectacle. The murder became myth, and the myth became a lens through which to view the tensions of Baroque Rome: between violence and chaos, passion and restraint. What follows echoes a racket fiercely striking a ball, of a body falling, of a myth retold.
Seven
The abundance of candidates for the production of La Mort d’Hyacinthe reflects the influx of artists into Rome during the early 17th century. The Caravaggio and Northern European Painting exhibition of 2018–2019 in a museum in Utrecht highlighted the specific contexts in which northern painters responded to the innovative art of the Italian master Caravaggio. One of the lectures was given by an art historian on the work of the Liège painter Gérard Douffet, whom he identified as the painter of The Death of Hyacinth. Gerard Douffet, born in Liège in 1594, studied under Peter Paul Rubens in Antwerp between 1612 and 1614 before seeking artistic inspiration in Italy, where he stayed from 1614 to 1623/1624. According to his biographer, Douffet's guide in Rome accompanied him to a place where "the most renowned artists gathered to perfect their art", specifically the work of Caravaggio. This guide was most likely Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, patron of the San Luca academy and a pivotal figure in Caravaggio’s career. Besides the cardinal served as the cultural agent of the Medici family in Rome. It was the cardinal who did his utmost to create peace between the pro and anti Caravaggio members. For decades on end! Douffet’s biographer also notes that the greatest advantage the young painter gained from his Roman experience was a cultivated taste for the Belles Lettres and the study of poetry and history. This reference evokes the Umoristi academy, where these literary disciplines were held in high regard, alongside the San Luca academy. Had Douffet become aware of The Death of Hyacinth tennis discussions during Umoristi meetings? And as to the San Luca, did Douffet personally experience the heightened emotions within this artistic platform between 1617 and 1620? The young painter would have sided with the Caravaggio faction, as might be expected based on his close connections with Caravaggio, the Genius of Rome.
Eight
In a secluded Italian palace, a fresco has been found that has escaped the attention of the select group of literary critics studying the Death of Hyacinth tennis context. The fresco depicts a beautifully stylised tennis court from the Baroque period. The action appears frozen: Apollo leans forward anxiously to see how badly his opponent has been injured, still clutching the racket with which he delivered the fatal blow. The ominous spider's web in the middle of the net adds a mysterious, symbolic dimension to the scene. This fresco draws inspiration from Giambattista Marino’s magnum opus, his l’Adone. This celebrated poet of the Italian Baroque and proves to be one of the first to dedicate himself to the Apollo and Hyacinth tennis theme in the Baroque. Marino can be described as a serious instigator of the poetically themed Death of Hyacinth motif during the literary activities of the Umoristi academy.
Fragments of his yet-to-be-published L’Adone circulated in cultural circles. Its homoerotic undertones sparked ecclesiastical debate, leading to discussions among members of the academy. Both pro-Marino and anti-Marino factions composed their own versions of the theme. Marino dedicated over 30 ottavi (8-line rhymes) to Apollo’s tennis match with Hyacinthus in his L’Adone. The poet concludes his poem with a flattering portrait of Hyacinthus painted by Apollo, the God of the Arts, so that the name of his beloved would live on. This is a reference to the literary origin of transformations in the Apollo and Hyacinthus theme, Ovid's Metamorphoses. The Roman poet, however, used a discus, not a ball, thrown by Apollo to kill Hyacinth, highlighting the evolution of myth through artistic reinterpretation.
Nine
Here we introduce a poet who takes Marino’s concept even further. His poem was published in 1618 and is another poetic gem. Compared to Marino's text, Francesco Bracciolini's poem Lo Scherno degli Dei, seems to contain more recognizable contemporary allusions. Caravaggio himself at first seems to remain in the shadows, but his contours gradually become sharper. Lo Scherno degli Dei possesses a surprisingly fresh, sensual, and unashamedly realistic quality. It falls in the category eroicomico (mock-heroïc) en burlesco mitologico, a genre of poetry that played with hidden references to contemporary reality. In burlesco mitologico works, it was not only the behaviour of mythological figures that the poet aimed to satirize, but also figures from Bracciolini's own personal experience that had captured the audience's attention. In the poetic travesties that Bracciolini included in his "Apollo and Hyacinth" tennis match, he was playing with the perspective of Caravaggio's infamous tennis match. It is Bracciolini's description in Lo Scherno degli Dei of two paintings with The Death of Hyacinth subject that immediately stands out. In his introduction to the tennis match (ottavi 25-27) between Apollo and Hyacinth, Francesco Bracciolini expresses the need for a painting that depicts the drama. This was to capture Hyacinth's beauty for eternity. The painting was to be executed by la maestra Natura (Apollo) himself. It was this god, after all, who possessed the art of transformation.
Ten
Fillide Melandroni gradually emerges as a pivotal figure in the search for a biographical subtext behind The Death of Hyacinth painting. The ultimate trigger for the fatal confrontation on 28 May 1606 appears to be Fillide’s increasing subjugation to her pimp, Ranuccio Tomassoni, an arrangement that deeply frustrated Caravaggio. Several overlooked aspects of Fillide’s life are addressed in a poem clearly inspired by her. Francesco Bracciolini, once again the author, included it in his book Lo Scherno degli Dei. In the text of Fillide civettina (Coquettish Fillide), a vivid portrait of a remarkable young woman intent on winning hearts begins to take shape. The timing of the poem, 1618, the year of Fillide Melandroni’s death, suggests that Bracciolini is indeed alluding to her. She had been bedridden for some time, and her condition was visibly deteriorating. The poem can be interpreted as an attempt to express sympathy and compassion for Fillide’s natural flirtatiousness. Bracciolini through his Fillide civettina emphasizes its emotional resonance and historical timing. Fillide was perceived as the catalyst between the two rivals and likely served as the emotional centre of the dramatic tennis duel.
Eleven
The nobleman Giulio Strozzi proves to have been Fillide’s lover from roughly 1604 to 1618, the last five years proving to be particularly troublesome for him. Giulio returned to his birthplace Venice around 1619. It seems highly likely that the death of Fillide the previous year contributed to this, especially given the frustration he must have experienced from having hardly been able to maintain contact with her. Strozzi had so many questions for her, how could it be that their relationship became increasingly strained? The emotions associated with this increasingly defined his state of mind. These are tangibly expressed in one of his libretti, ‘My Fillide who caused me sorrow” (Filli mia che mi ferì), a desperate cry from the heart with criticism of Fillide. Nevertheless, she is portrayed in the text by her beloved as a star. Giulio Strozzi is closely followed to find out if there is anything in his poetic work in Venice that reveals a vision of Fillide playing in his thoughts. The latter should come as no surprise based on the emotional experiences related to processing heartbreak for this poet. This is also in the context of Caravaggio's portrait of Fillide, which Strozzi prominently displayed in his palace in Venice. Giulio Strozzi built up an impressive corpus of poems in Venice. In these the male lover laments a mistress who is on the run, a prime example of unrequited love. It seems to be a shorter version of Bracciolini's Fillide civettina, supplemented with new vague characters. What is the point of fleeing if you are not freed from the chains of your heart, according to the text. Fillide Melandroni was exiled, and it was a potential marriage contract that caused the separation between the two lovers. Strozzi’s father objected to his son having an affair with a prostitute. It was the heartbreak and the societal pressures that shaped their separation.
Twelve
Fillide Melandroni continues to stir emotions in the course of this research. Alongside Giulio Strozzi, it is his close friend Marcello Giovanetti who is presented here as a co-inspirer of the literary musings that recall the fatal tennis match of 1606. Giovanetti’s poetic strategy incorporates all literary elements to leave the reader in confusion, encouraging reflection on what has just been consumed. The following poem by Giovanetti indeed seems inspired by such a sad affair. Two women come to the forefront, and according to Giovanetti, they share something in common. One seems to allude to Fillide Melandroni. In his La Donna presente a spettacolo di Giustizia, the spectacle of the execution of the death sentence in 1599 of Beatrice Cenci is described, without her name being mentioned. Beatrice had her father Francesco Cenci killed, a man with a tyrannical spirit who committed extreme violence against his close family members. The court acted immediately, and Beatrice was to be executed publicly. Just like a large crowd of Romans, Caravaggio, and probably Fillide Melandroni, managed to secure a spot for the execution, as described by Caravaggio biographers. However, they left the following poem untouched. Giovanetti's second poem with a contemporary touch is titled Bella Dama vede l'amante disfidato à Duello. Again, Fillide Melandroni seems to play a role here, in this case as a witness to a duel. However, Giovanetti makes no mention of a tennis match as the origin of the duel, only that it is a love duel that apparently ignited the emotions. Two rivals stand threateningly opposite each other, comparable to knights in armour, culminating in: “But you, fair lady, are the referee of this match, its queen, with the authority to decide. Who will win your heart?” The text possesses evident characteristics of a clever allusion to the fatal tennis match that Caravaggio played against Ranuccio Tomassoni, Fillide Melandroni's pimp and protector.
Thirteen
A new poetic voice enters the scene: Count Carlo Gabrielli di Gubbio, author of Insalata mescolanza (1621). A friend of Giulio Strozzi, Gabrielli spent time with him in a Roman palace before Fillide Melandroni’s death in 1618. Their conversations likely touched on Caravaggio’s fateful tennis match and Fillide’s emotional role in the drama. Gabrielli’s poems focus on Fillide as a captivating figure, gazing from her window at passing men, choosing one with a subtle nod. The other, rejected, becomes agitated. In four poems examined here, Gabrielli consistently presents two lovers (cavalieri) vying for the attention of a Dama. The setting shifts from street to dance floor, but the emotional tension remains. Gabrielli’s depiction of Fillide’s inn, where she ran a house of ill repute, adds biographical texture. His verses suggest a rivalry between two suitors, one of whom may be Ranuccio. Gabrielli’s tone implies disapproval of this figure, while favouring the other. The poet’s allegiances seem shaped by his sources, casting Fillide as both muse and mirror of the conflict.
Fourteen
Gabrielli’s poetic engagement with the Caravaggio-Ranuccio rivalry continues in the final section of Insalata mescolanza. One poem, introduced here, contains elements that suggest a link to the creation of The Death of Hyacinth. Gabrielli also composed a celebratory poem for the 1621 marriage of Federigo Ubaldo della Rovere and Claudia de’ Medici, daughter of Grand Duke Ferdinando I. This Medici connection raises expectations. In poem no. 22, two weary duelists face off on a tennis court. Gabrielli’s tone is dismissive, portraying them as cowardly. The match is framed as symbolic, tied to the marriage. In poem no. 23, Apollo returns as the God of Painting, transforming Hyacinth into a flower. Gabrielli’s allegory seems to cast Federigo Ubaldo as Hyacinth, foreshadowing his death two years later, aged 18. The young duke’s immaturity as a husband is subtly critiqued. The poetic sequence blends myth, biography, and prophecy, suggesting that the tennis motif served as a vehicle for deeper cultural commentary. In Gabrielli’s hands, tennis becomes a stage for deeper truths about love, rivalry, and legacy.
Fifteen
The famous Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens spent a considerable period (1601–1608) in Italy, particularly in Rome. What might this master of Gérard Douffet have imparted in Antwerp before his pupil ventured into his Roman adventure in 1614? For Rubens began eight years of intensive training on the Italian penisula, which introduced him to the masters of the Renaissance. Through his brother Philip Rubens in Rome, Peter Paul made contact with two members of the powerful Colonna family, Cardinal Ascanio and his sister Costanza Colonna. Costanza, the Marchioness of the village of Caravaggio, would support the artist Caravaggio throughout his life with both advice and action, even during his exile. Rubens may also have met Caravaggio, specifically in Rome's Chiesa Nuova. Rubens created three altarpieces here between 1606 and 1608. This period is particularly fascinating, as Rubens must have learned about Caravaggio's murder and his exile from the city during his stay in Rome. Additionally, around 1603, Caravaggio painted his widely acclaimed Entombment of Christ for another altar in the Chiesa Nuova. What had Rubens told his pupil Douffet later when the latter prepared his journey to Rome in 1614? Peter Paul Rubens was not just as a master painter, but as a cultural conduit, linking Antwerp to Rome, and Douffet to Caravaggio. His time in Italy is rendered with emotional and intellectual weight, suggesting that Rubens absorbed not only artistic technique but also the dramatic tensions of Baroque Rome. The connection to Costanza Colonna is emphasized as a stabilizing force in Caravaggio’s life, while Rubens’ presence in Chiesa Nuova during the years of Caravaggio’s exile adds a layer of historical intrigue. Rubens’ mentorship of Douffet can be seen as a transmission of both style and story, perhaps even of whispered rumours surrounding the fatal tennis match. Douffet must have been intrigued by them when he set out to travel to Rome to be inspired by Caravaggio’s unique way of painting.
Sixteen
The following description should be associated with the fact that it was on the original Medici tennis court that Caravaggio killed his opponent. The game of tennis proves to be a sporty pastime with which the Medici family wanted to associate themselves, often staged within a historical context. Respective or irrespective of the fatal 1606 match. This intimate bond gave the theme more prominence and appeared to be more serious. During the Baroque period, the Medici family commissioned tennis-related works to place their strong bond with the game into perspective. The tennis theme of Apollo and Hyacinth was also prominently featured. A housemate of the painter Douffet in Rome also tackled the subject, and it ended up in the collection of Claudia de' Medici. The Medici also positioned themselves as patrons of Lorenzo Lippi, the painter of the mysterious Giocatore di palla a corda che ha ucciso un compagno (now lost). A painting of a tennis player who killed a fellow player. It is fascinating to associate such a work again with The Medici, with Claudia emerging once more as the patron.
In this chapter tennis is portrayed not just as a pastime, but as a cultural metaphor, used by the Medici to stage power, refinement, and mythic association. The inclusion of Lorenzo Lippi’s lost painting Giocatore di palla a corda che ha ucciso un compagno is framed as a haunting echo of Caravaggio’s match, suggesting that the theme of tennis-as-tragedy continued to ripple through artistic circles. Claudia de’ Medici’s role as patron is emphasized to show how a Medici princess, too, shaped the legacy of this mythic narrative.
Seventeen
The Medici family has notably made their presence felt as key players in the artistic and literary works discussed here, without any specific search for their name. It surfaced almost consistently whenever the artistic biographies of painters and poets mentioned were unravelled. The first was Cardinal Ferdinando de’ Medici, whose involvement included commissioning a tennis court at his residence in Rome, Palazzo Firenze, in 1570. This building passed into the hands of the Neri family in 1604, or even before. To highlight the role of ball games in Florence more sharply, a Florentine academy of great historical significance is now spotlighted: the Accademia della Crusca. Founded in 1583, it is the oldest language academy in the world. One of the primary missions of the society was to write the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, a comprehensive Italian dictionary. Its first edition was published in 1612. The inspiration for the Crusca academy from all the technical and allegorical aspects of the tennis ball is expressed in 21 paragraphs dedicated to ball games in the Dizionario della lingua italiana of the Accademia della Crusca. In the new edition of the text, it is also added that the theme of balls cannot be viewed separately from the balls in the family crest of the Medici, a poetic metaphor for power, ball-related sports, and legacy.
Eighteen
It is after a process of nearly two decades of research (with occasional breaks to establish a suitable distance from the subject) that a convincing foundation of the original theory can be presented regarding the mystery surrounding the depiction of The Death of Hyacinth. A recent article by art historian John Gash provides a tempting impetus, as well as apparent support for this. His study can be interpreted as a striking example of a maturation process in which sources were tapped that seem to bolster the succession of hypotheses about the painter in question and the reason for its production. It is the Caravaggist painter Gérard Douffet from Liège who once again comes forward. John Gash gathers the paintings that can be attributed to Douffet during his stay in Italy from 1614 to 1624, including his Death of Hyacinth. Douffet's formally established oeuvre is limited to just 20 paintings, but he clearly produced more, some of which are also in Italy. It is the sharp eye of the specialist that is able to bring to the surface those details in Douffet's compositions that make the painter distinctive. Gash highlights Douffet’s The Death of Hyacinth in this overview: he qualifies it as obviously Caravaggesque; it indeed evokes Caravaggio himself in various ways. This is based on the close-up treatment and the homoerotic undertone of the male nudes, as Apollo lovingly cradles the dying friend he has accidentally mortally wounded. Gash also comments on a possible commissioner for Douffet’s mythological painting. Various Roman patrons owned tennis courts and might have preferred such a subject choice, possibly also as a reference to Caravaggio's notorious fight, according to Gash's estimation.
John Gash’s recent article is treated as a scholarly revelation here, offering validation and momentum. The homoerotic undertone and close-up intimacy in Douffet’s painting as hallmarks of Caravaggio’s influence are emphasised. The idea that Roman patrons with tennis courts may have commissioned such a work adds intrigue and thematic closure. The chapter now ends with a sense of quiet revelation: the myth reborn through brushstroke, the murder refracted through allegory, and the artist’s legacy sealed in shadow and light.
Nineteen
The final chapter returns to the painting The Death of Hyacinth as a prism through which the entire narrative becomes visible. The tennis match between Caravaggio and Ranuccio Tomassoni, once a violent rupture, has become a cultural echo, resonating through poetry, painting, and patronage. This final chapter proposes that the painting’s enduring power lies in its ambiguity. It refuses to resolve the tension between love and violence, sport and ritual, myth and biography. Instead, it invites viewers to dwell in the space between, where meaning is not fixed, but fluid. The spider’s web, the rackets, the gaze of Apollo: each element becomes a symbol, layered with historical and emotional resonance. The painting is not an answer, but a question, posed across centuries.
In closing, the book suggests that The Death of Hyacinth is not just a depiction of a myth, but a mirror of Caravaggio’s world and ours. If there is one literary work that lends itself perfectly as a source of inspiration for artists, it is Ovid's Metamorphoses. It provided an excellent motivation for painters to bring figurative art and poetry together. The mutual dynamics developed from painting as 'silent poetry' and from poetry as 'speaking image'. A tempting starting point within the context of Caravaggio's more than a decade-long stay in Rome is, in this final stage, to highlight one of Caravaggio's plausible tennis opponents, Francesco Maria del Monte. If we refer back to the drama on which this entire book is based, the out-of-control tennis match between Caravaggio and Ranuccio Tomassoni, then the likely role played by the cardinal just after the fateful event is of considerable significance. It is certainly possible that during Caravaggio's stay at Cardinal del Monte’s residence Palazzo Madama (1595-1600, which now serves as the Senate), both host and guest found themselves on the tennis court, either at the Palazzo Firenze court or at the one located at the Villa Medici. Cardinal del Monte’s biographer, Zygmunt Wazbinski, provides an intriguing depiction of the special place that Palazzo Madama held among a select group of artists and their patrons. Wazbinski argues that artists from outside Rome and Italy exhibited their works in Palazzo Madama to gain recognition within the Roman artistic milieu. Palazzo Madama thus evolved into the stage for Caravaggio's unique style, according to Wazbinski. A place also had to be made for a portrait of his most extreme act, as can be established. Visitors immediately recognised the significance of The Death of Hyacinth painting upon viewing it. Through Ovid's theme of transformation, Caravaggio's death is undone, as he attains eternal life through his art (and lives on as a hyacinth). A notable parallel exists between Caravaggio's The Entombment (in Rome’s Chiesa Nuova) and The Death of Hyacinth in a realistic context: this is in the sense that painting does not depict the death of Ranuccio Tomassoni but that of Caravaggio in 1610. This interpretation would undoubtedly have strongly appealed to Cardinal del Monte, the ultimate father figure for the painter. The Death of Hyacinth as a celebration of art, therefore, also supported by Douffet's use of light and dark in his composition, following in the footsteps of his shining example Caravaggio. The Death of Hyacinth is not just presented here as a painting, but as a carrier of memory, myth, and unresolved tension.
2. PAPER IN ABSENTIA by Theo Bollerman
Racket and cricket – why do these words, as used in the famous English ballgames, end with the same syllable “ket”?
History of cricket
Let us first research the word “cricket”. As a Dutchman, living in The Hague, I have a special affinity with this game. The Hague can rightly be considered the cradle of Dutch cricket. Especially after this “English” sport became ingrained in the Netherlands, cricket clubs from The Hague began to dominate. Nearly 60 national championships have been won by HBS, Quick, VCC, and the Royal HCC, which leads the pack with an unbeatable 49 titles.
England often claims the invention of this game and other sports like golf, helped by the interesting fact that, until well into the last century, the country controlled nearly a quarter of the world’s landmass. Naturally, their rulers took their cricket bats with them to faraway lands. As a result, the cricket teams of India, Pakistan, South Africa, New Zealand, the West Indies, and Australia have often managed to beat their “motherland.”
But is cricket really as English as the British claim?
The Middle Ages
In our search for the origins of these so-called English sports, we rather surprisingly end up in… Flanders.
It all began in 1066 when William the Conqueror crossed over from Normandy to win the Battle of Hastings and become King of England. He was married to Matilda of Flanders, who had encouraged her father Count Baldwin to fully support him.
At that time, Flanders already had significant trade interests with the islanders due to the cloth trade. Enterprising merchants crossed the Channel to the great abbeys in North England, Gloucestershire and the Cotswolds where sheep were raised.
Ghent and Bruges were then already famous across Europe for their textile industry, which required more wool than the Flemish could produce themselves.
In the middle of the 12th century, the Flemish therefore signed a treaty with the English and Scots—known as the Flemish Hanse of London—to protect this trade. The first mention of this treaty is from 1241; in about 1275, the merchants of Bruges succeeded in creating a more extensive Hanse to which most of the Flemish towns belonged, under the leadership of Bruges.
Of course, Flemish merchants moved to England and Scotland. And they brought not only their families and their language, but also their ball games!
Flanders, land of ball games
As early as ancient Greece, throwing spherical objects was considered a fun game. Odysseus saw Nausicaa playing with balls on the beach. Hills and mountainous areas may be beautiful and ideal for building castles and villages, but if you want to play ball, the ball might just keep rolling down. Flanders, on the other hand, is flat as a pancake, making it logical that a variety of ball games were developed there.
Where we, the Dutch in the 15th century, used the verb "kaatsen” for hitting the ball back and forth, the Flemish said they were "ketsen", playing with the ball. By the way, Flemish is just a variant of the Dutch language. The reason that not much is known about the influence of the Flemish on the development of the ballgames surely has to do with the fact, that the Dutch language is not known to British or French historians.
Anyway, ketsen was the favourite game of the farmers and citizens: three against three with rules still known today in Frysia and Flanders. You playe(d) it with bare hands.
By the late 15th century, an aid was introduced that allowed you to hit harder and farther. First a wooden plank, and then one with strings—derived from those already used in violins. The Flemish called that thing a re-kets (a rebounder). The strings were thus called kets-darmen (ball-gut).
This game also made its way to England. Re-kets became racket, and the stringing became known as cat(s)gut. Do the older among us recognize the "catgut," once used by doctors for suturing and tennis players for hitting balls?
More about the etymology of the other Flemish words (lof, inset) in the current tennis language later in this article.
Cricket
The Flemish also played a ball game using a wooden shepherd’s club. You had to protect your cricke—a three-legged stool also used for prayer—from being hit.
A variant of cricket still exists in England today, called “stoolball,” a name that unmistakably refers to the origin of the wicket—the three stumps used in modern cricket.
So the act of “ketsen” with a cricke naturally became crik-ketsen: cricket.
In 1533, the famous poet John Skelton wrote a poem praising Flemish weavers in southern England as the “kings of creckettes.” From this, it is inferred that weavers “invented” the game in southwest England around that time. But we know better—it had already existed for several centuries.
The French also claim the game. But hey, national borders didn’t really exist back then, and Flemish is still spoken in parts of northern France… So let’s just stick with Flanders as the region where cricket was invented.
And the French also claim that the invention of the re-kets -racket – is thanks to a lady in Norther France, who was so good at playing the game of jeu de paume, that she was allowed a wooden bat. Again, northern France is equivalent to Flanders.
Galápagos
Naturally, the islanders went on to develop their own versions of all these ball games. They formalized the rules. The Scots adapted kolf into golf; they claim that using a little hole to put the ball in, is their invention. But golf historian Robin Bargmann discovered that that endgoal, a hole in the ground, also already existed in Flanders.
The English changed the rules of the cricket-like game and formalized them, and the ancient game of tennis—thanks to the invention of the rubber ball — could now be played on grass.
That’s why we can view the United Kingdom as the Galápagos of ball sports
Tennis language.
As the reader probably knows, the scoring system of the game is strange, but easily to explain.
Almost every game, from the early days on, was a means to earn some extra money. The Romans threw their dices. The Dutch and German word for “match” says it all: a “wedstrijd”, eine Wettkampf, meaning a” betting contest”.
So tennis, jeu de paume, giocco della pallacorde if you are Italian, was always played for money. The mediaeval coin in every kingdom was the crown, la couronne, die Krone. It existed of 60 sous. The number 60 being the endstation of the counting system, as your watch tells you.
So if you play a quarter a point, you will find the scoring system of tennis. Literature from the 15th century proves that is used to be 45, not 40. Probably it is laziness that 45 became 40; when I play lawntennis in the UK, my partners will often score “five-love” or “Fif-love” instead of fifteen love.
When you had lost the game, you had to take your wallet and put your crown next to the net; a famous print by Chrispijn van der Passe (1612; tenniscourt in Leyden) shows the coins lying next to the basket with the balls.
The winner took all the money. The Flemish called the total amount: “de inset”, the amount of money that is put into the game. Inset became “set”.
Then there is the famous word “love” with all kinds of fantasy explanations like the French came up with: from l’oeuf, the egg, because when you draw an egg, it looks like a zero. But never is ever someplace mentioned, that the score was written down or drawn on a board.
No, we have better proof that it is originally a Dutch – Flemish word.
In several Dutch texts you can find the explanation. For instance, in the “Geuzen Liedboek”, end of the 16th century. A text about warfare, where tennis is used as a metaphor, reads: “we speelden niet voor geld, pand of lof, etc.” Geld = money; pand = pawn, f.i. your gold chain; LOF = the honor.
“We did not play for money, pawn or honor.”
So when you play for the honor, no money is at stake. Lof becomes love!
Conclusion
I hope that these explanations convince the reader of the important influence of the Flemish people in bringing their games to England.
The rest is history.
Theo Bollerman, The Hague, September 9, 2025
Racket and cricket – why do these words, as used in the famous English ballgames, end with the same syllable “ket”?
History of cricket
Let us first research the word “cricket”. As a Dutchman, living in The Hague, I have a special affinity with this game. The Hague can rightly be considered the cradle of Dutch cricket. Especially after this “English” sport became ingrained in the Netherlands, cricket clubs from The Hague began to dominate. Nearly 60 national championships have been won by HBS, Quick, VCC, and the Royal HCC, which leads the pack with an unbeatable 49 titles.
England often claims the invention of this game and other sports like golf, helped by the interesting fact that, until well into the last century, the country controlled nearly a quarter of the world’s landmass. Naturally, their rulers took their cricket bats with them to faraway lands. As a result, the cricket teams of India, Pakistan, South Africa, New Zealand, the West Indies, and Australia have often managed to beat their “motherland.”
But is cricket really as English as the British claim?
The Middle Ages
In our search for the origins of these so-called English sports, we rather surprisingly end up in… Flanders.
It all began in 1066 when William the Conqueror crossed over from Normandy to win the Battle of Hastings and become King of England. He was married to Matilda of Flanders, who had encouraged her father Count Baldwin to fully support him.
At that time, Flanders already had significant trade interests with the islanders due to the cloth trade. Enterprising merchants crossed the Channel to the great abbeys in North England, Gloucestershire and the Cotswolds where sheep were raised.
Ghent and Bruges were then already famous across Europe for their textile industry, which required more wool than the Flemish could produce themselves.
In the middle of the 12th century, the Flemish therefore signed a treaty with the English and Scots—known as the Flemish Hanse of London—to protect this trade. The first mention of this treaty is from 1241; in about 1275, the merchants of Bruges succeeded in creating a more extensive Hanse to which most of the Flemish towns belonged, under the leadership of Bruges.
Of course, Flemish merchants moved to England and Scotland. And they brought not only their families and their language, but also their ball games!
Flanders, land of ball games
As early as ancient Greece, throwing spherical objects was considered a fun game. Odysseus saw Nausicaa playing with balls on the beach. Hills and mountainous areas may be beautiful and ideal for building castles and villages, but if you want to play ball, the ball might just keep rolling down. Flanders, on the other hand, is flat as a pancake, making it logical that a variety of ball games were developed there.
Where we, the Dutch in the 15th century, used the verb "kaatsen” for hitting the ball back and forth, the Flemish said they were "ketsen", playing with the ball. By the way, Flemish is just a variant of the Dutch language. The reason that not much is known about the influence of the Flemish on the development of the ballgames surely has to do with the fact, that the Dutch language is not known to British or French historians.
Anyway, ketsen was the favourite game of the farmers and citizens: three against three with rules still known today in Frysia and Flanders. You playe(d) it with bare hands.
By the late 15th century, an aid was introduced that allowed you to hit harder and farther. First a wooden plank, and then one with strings—derived from those already used in violins. The Flemish called that thing a re-kets (a rebounder). The strings were thus called kets-darmen (ball-gut).
This game also made its way to England. Re-kets became racket, and the stringing became known as cat(s)gut. Do the older among us recognize the "catgut," once used by doctors for suturing and tennis players for hitting balls?
More about the etymology of the other Flemish words (lof, inset) in the current tennis language later in this article.
Cricket
The Flemish also played a ball game using a wooden shepherd’s club. You had to protect your cricke—a three-legged stool also used for prayer—from being hit.
A variant of cricket still exists in England today, called “stoolball,” a name that unmistakably refers to the origin of the wicket—the three stumps used in modern cricket.
So the act of “ketsen” with a cricke naturally became crik-ketsen: cricket.
In 1533, the famous poet John Skelton wrote a poem praising Flemish weavers in southern England as the “kings of creckettes.” From this, it is inferred that weavers “invented” the game in southwest England around that time. But we know better—it had already existed for several centuries.
The French also claim the game. But hey, national borders didn’t really exist back then, and Flemish is still spoken in parts of northern France… So let’s just stick with Flanders as the region where cricket was invented.
And the French also claim that the invention of the re-kets -racket – is thanks to a lady in Norther France, who was so good at playing the game of jeu de paume, that she was allowed a wooden bat. Again, northern France is equivalent to Flanders.
Galápagos
Naturally, the islanders went on to develop their own versions of all these ball games. They formalized the rules. The Scots adapted kolf into golf; they claim that using a little hole to put the ball in, is their invention. But golf historian Robin Bargmann discovered that that endgoal, a hole in the ground, also already existed in Flanders.
The English changed the rules of the cricket-like game and formalized them, and the ancient game of tennis—thanks to the invention of the rubber ball — could now be played on grass.
That’s why we can view the United Kingdom as the Galápagos of ball sports
Tennis language.
As the reader probably knows, the scoring system of the game is strange, but easily to explain.
Almost every game, from the early days on, was a means to earn some extra money. The Romans threw their dices. The Dutch and German word for “match” says it all: a “wedstrijd”, eine Wettkampf, meaning a” betting contest”.
So tennis, jeu de paume, giocco della pallacorde if you are Italian, was always played for money. The mediaeval coin in every kingdom was the crown, la couronne, die Krone. It existed of 60 sous. The number 60 being the endstation of the counting system, as your watch tells you.
So if you play a quarter a point, you will find the scoring system of tennis. Literature from the 15th century proves that is used to be 45, not 40. Probably it is laziness that 45 became 40; when I play lawntennis in the UK, my partners will often score “five-love” or “Fif-love” instead of fifteen love.
When you had lost the game, you had to take your wallet and put your crown next to the net; a famous print by Chrispijn van der Passe (1612; tenniscourt in Leyden) shows the coins lying next to the basket with the balls.
The winner took all the money. The Flemish called the total amount: “de inset”, the amount of money that is put into the game. Inset became “set”.
Then there is the famous word “love” with all kinds of fantasy explanations like the French came up with: from l’oeuf, the egg, because when you draw an egg, it looks like a zero. But never is ever someplace mentioned, that the score was written down or drawn on a board.
No, we have better proof that it is originally a Dutch – Flemish word.
In several Dutch texts you can find the explanation. For instance, in the “Geuzen Liedboek”, end of the 16th century. A text about warfare, where tennis is used as a metaphor, reads: “we speelden niet voor geld, pand of lof, etc.” Geld = money; pand = pawn, f.i. your gold chain; LOF = the honor.
“We did not play for money, pawn or honor.”
So when you play for the honor, no money is at stake. Lof becomes love!
Conclusion
I hope that these explanations convince the reader of the important influence of the Flemish people in bringing their games to England.
The rest is history.
Theo Bollerman, The Hague, September 9, 2025